THE HISTORY OF PSILOCYBIN USE

 

The history of psilocybin use spans thousands of years, intersecting with indigenous practices, scientific research, countercultural movements, and modern politics.

Here's an overview:

Ancient and Indigenous Use

·      7-9 K years ago: The earliest evidence of psychedelics is in a cave in the Tassili-N-Ajjer region of the Sahara Desert, Algeria- on a mural. The mural depicts “mushroom man” or “mushroom shaman”, a bee-headed figure with mushrooms sprouting out of his body. Identified as PSILOCYBE MAIREI, which were native to the region.

·      6 K years ago: The Selva Pascuala mural in a cave near Villar del Humo, Spain. It features mushrooms researchers believe to be PSILOCYBE HISPANICA, a local species

·      5,700 years ago The identification of mescaline strengthened the evidence that native North Americans recognized the psychotropic properties of peyote as long ago as 5,700

·      5000 BC- Psychedelics used in Central America; Ayahuasca used in the Amazon; Iboga used in West Africa

·      3700 BC. Evidence of the use of PEYOTE ( a cactus containing the psilocybin MESCALINE) in the Rio Grande, Texas.

·      Brian Muraresku (The Immortality Key: The Secret History of The Religion With No Name, delineates 12 years’ worth of research and data revealing ritualistic psychedelic use in classical antiquity- among ancient Greeks, Romans & Paleo Christians. Psychedelic wine was drunk outside Pompei from the 1st century AD- the same time early Christians were there. This is revolutionary.

This subject is discussed in The Mystery Religion of ancient Greece- the Eleusian Mysteries. Implications for Christianity are far reaching.

·      There was ritual use of psychedelic beer in Iberia

·      392 BC, Greece – psychedelic use was wiped out by the Catholic Church

·      3K plus years ago in Peru, the use of the San Pedro cactus (which also contains mescaline) was known

·      1300 BC in N Peru, a stone carving of a deity shows the god holding the San Pedro cactus

·      1K-1500K BC mushroom stones were found in both Mexico and Guatemala, indicating the use of psilocybin mushrooms

·      15th century Spanish missionaries attempted to destroy all records and evidence of the use of these mushrooms,

·      16th + 17th century Spanish conquistadors in Central & South America were appalled that the people utilized plants, and that women were involved. It was threatening as psychedelics gave power to the people. During the inquisition, lasting more than 350 years- between 1478 & 1834- using plants was punishable by death. Nevertheless, a 16th century Spanish Franciscan friar and historian mentioned TEONANACATL in his extensive writings, intriguing 20th century ethnopharmacologists and leading to a decades long search for the identification of TEONANACATL.

·      South American Aztec Indians referred to magic mushrooms as TEONANACATL, meaning God’s flesh, and they were used in religious and healing rituals.

·      1K years ago, a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences described the discovery of a shaman’s pouch in SW Bolivia, containing multiple psychedelics, including BUFOTENIN and DMT. Interestingly, the pouch contained HARMINE which can be combined with DMT to potentiate psilocybin effects. (DMT is both a derivative and a structural analog of tryptamines. Half life 9-12 minutes. Administration: by mouth with a MAOI), vapor, insufflation, rectal, IM, IV)

·      1K years ago. The researcher Dennis McKenna points out there isn’t data showing exactly how far back Ayahuasca use dates- but undoubtedly thousands of years

·      1895 saw the 1st scientific trial involving peyote in Wash, DC @ Columbia Univ (now George Washington Univ).

·      1897 German Pharmacist Arthur Heffter consumed 150 mg mescaline that he had isolated. This was the 1st experience with a purified psychedelic

·      1904 Mycologist Franklin Earle was the 1st person to identify Psilocybe Cubenis in Cuba

·      1912 German chemist Anton Kottisch -    1st to synthesize MDMA

·      1919 Austrian chemist Ernst Spath-      1st to synthesize mescaline

 

     * 1930s-1950s: Western anthropologists and ethnobotanists, such as Richard Evans Schultes, documented indigenous mushroom ceremonies. R. Gordon Wasson's famous 1957 Life magazine article introduced psilocybin to mainstream Western audiences.

·      1931 Canadian chemist Richard Manski -     1st to synthesize DMT

·      1938 Swiss chemist Albert Hofman, who worked for Sandoz Pharmaceuticals, developed LSD from ergot that grows on wheat and barley. LSD-25 was the 25th variation. He did not realize it’s capabilities.

·      1943 he had a peculiar “presentiment” that there was something worthwhile in it. He accidentally ingested some on his finger and had an unexpected experience.

A few days later he planned an experiment with it. He ingested          250 micrograms of LSD, which he thought would represent a  prudently safe, small amount, but was in fact a strong dose. He had a period of psychosis with it. Sandoz Pharmaceuticals sent free packets of LSD to any chemist who wanted to research it.

·      1946 Microbiologist Oswaldo Goncalves de Lima discovered DMT’s natural occurrence in plants (Goncalves de Lima, 1946)

·      1949 The psychiatrist Max Rinkel carried out the 1stexperiment in the US by giving 100 volunteers at the Boston Psychopathic Institute. He believed the effects of the drug mimicked schizophrenic psychosis- calling LSD a “madness mimicking” agent

Throughout the 1950s, over 500 articles on LSD appeared in scientific journals. Post WW2 era doctors and psychiatrists explored LSD for its potential therapeutic value. Doctors had free reign in the 50’s and 60’s to study psychedelics. This was the “1st wave” of research in the US, and also in Europe.

1958: Albert Hofmann, the Swiss chemist who discovered LSD, first synthesized psilocybin from Psilocybe Mexicana mushrooms.

 There were also CIA funded experiments conducted by Ewen Cameron at the Allen Memorial Institute in Montreal, Quebec. Some of the most wide-spread trials in the Western World occurred in Saskatchewan, under the direction of psychiatrists Humphry Osmond (in Weyburn) and Abram Haffer (in Saskatoon).  

Far from being fringe medical research, these LSD trials represented a fruitful, and encouraging, branch of psychiatric research occurring alongside more famous and successful trials of the 1st generation of psychopharmacological agents, such as chlorpromazine and imipramine. Ultimately, these LSD experiments failed for 2 reasons, one scientific and the other cultural. First, in the 1950s and early 1960s, the scientific parameters of clinical trials shifted to necessitate randomized controlled trials, which the Saskatchewan researchers had failed to construct. Second, as LSD became increasingly associated with student riots, antiwar demonstrations, and the counterculture, governments intervened to criminalize the drug, restricting and then terminating formal medical research into its potential therapeutic effects (Can J Psychiatry June 2005; Vol 50, No 7:381-388) (article Flashback: Psychiatric Experimentation with LSD in Historical Perspective. Erika Dyck. 2005

·      1950-1965- 40,000 patients were given psychedelic drugs in trials researching the schizophrenic process. This resulted in over 1000 scientific papers.

·      1952 American Charles Savage published 1st study looking at LSD as a treatment for depression in the American Journal of Psychiatry. Results were inconclusive, meaning it made no difference in outcomes.

·      1952 Humphry Osmond published studies on LSD use for treating those with alcohol abuse. He was at the cutting edge of psilocybin research. It led to his association with novelist Aldous Huxley, who after receiving psychedelics, wrote Doors of Perception. His research also led to his involvement with the CIA and M16, which were interested in LSD as a possible “truth drug” to make enemy agents reveal secrets.   

·      1955 Gordon Wasson, then vice president of JP Morgan in NYC, is told by a friend of magic mushrooms & goes to Mexico in search of someone who would lead him in a psilocybin ceremonies. Maria Sabina took him under her wing for 2 years. After which time, and against Maria’s wishes to keep her photo and information private about her life & the sacred ceremonies he had learned of and participated in, he recounted his experiences in Life Magazine. It was on the front page of the most widely read magazine in America at the time- 1957.Wasson was also followed to Mexico by the CIA, due to their interest in psychedelics.0

·      1956 Czech psychiatrist Stanislas Grof had his 1st experience with LSD, ingesting 250 micrograms. He went on to pioneer the use of Holotropic Breathwork and Transpersonal Psychology. Grof carried out more than 4,000 LSD assisted therapy sessions, many at Esalen Institute where he led group workshops for decades. He had a tremendous influence in the US, more than any other researcher, in adding to scientific study and knowledge and creating a socially acceptable cultural milieu that helped prove the therapeutic value of psychedelics.

He said that transformation belongs to the psyche of the person- NOT the medicine. One of his books is called The Way of the Psyche. He stated that the psyched has the inclination to reintegrate itself, but if integration is not complete- “use body work to areas that are off”. He and his wife are currently doing trainings coupled with breathwork.

·      1956 Hungarian chemist & psychiatrist Stephen Szara- extracted DMT from the MIMOSA HOSTILIS plant and administered the extract to himself intramuscularly. This, along with Manske’s He made major contributions in the field of pharmacology. DMT’s natural occurrence in plants, formed the link between modern science and the historical use of many DMT-containing plants as a cultural and religious ritual sacrament (McKenna et al, 1998), their effect on the psyche and the chemical structure of DMT. He was the 1st person to describe its psychedelic effects.

He moved to the US after the Hungarian Revolution and eventually became Chief of the Biomedical Branch of the US National Institute on Drug Abuse. He worked on the metabolism of DMT in healthy and schizophrenic volunteers.

·      1957 front page, Life Magazine - titled SEEKING THE MAGIC MUSHROOM, about Gordon Wasson’s experiences in Mexico. The Life article resulted in hundreds swarming to Mexico, overrunning the town she lived in, changing the culture and turning the local and national people against her. Her home was burned down 1960 twice. She died in poverty.

·      1960 Timothy Leary, took mushrooms in Mexico before he arrived at Harvard to teach (inspired to go through Gordon Watson’s Life magazine article. He said he “learned more in 5 hours utilizing the mushrooms than he had from 15 years of study”.  He was an enigmatic prominent researcher at Harvard university.  On return to Harvard, he received permission to study psychedelics. That was the beginning of the Harvard Psychedelic Research Project where 20 theological students participated. 8 received psychedelics. 9 had mystical experiences. He was fired, along with Richard Alpert (who renamed himself Ram Das, and wrote “Be Here Now”) in 1963 for his controversial practice of taking psilocybin along with his subjects. With his charismatic personality and Irish back ground he took to the streets to become a crusader for psilocybin use. He was arrested 36 times. He was known for a 8-circuit model of consciousness

He was famous for “Turn on, tune in, drop out.”

·      On the west coast Ken Keasey trumpeted psilocybin. Loudly.

 

Early Researchers:

Albert Hofmann- Discovered LSD

Huston Smith- religious scholar. He said “in the end, it’s altered traits that matter- not altered states”. He was a member of the 1998 Elders Council. He received the 2010 APPPAH award

Richard Alpert- Harvard teacher & psilocybin researcher. He became RAM DAS, writing BE HERE NOW in 1971

Ralph Metzer, PhD. German born American psychologist & writer. Metzner & Ram DAS wrote Birth of a Psychedelic Culture. He founded the Green Earth Foundation.

Gabor Mate, Hungarian – Canadian Physician and prolific author. Expert in childhood trauma & it’s impacts on physical and mental health, including autoimmune disease, cancer, ADHD, addictions. His research informs mental health today. He is known for his book “in the Realm of Hungry Ghosts: Close Encounters with Addiction. His most recent book is The Myth of Normal.

1960’s- Psychedelics eventually made their way to the streets as Timothy Leary became an apostle for liberation.

·      Underground chemists, such as Leonard Pickard, Nick Sand & Owsley Stanley, started to manufacture the inexpensive LSD and distribute them to the general public. They produced millions of doses. It was when psychedelics entered the public realm and popular culture that the law surrounding their production, sale and possession started to change.  It was the time of the Vietnam War, and the protesters of the war were associated with protests, riots, rebellion, radicalism.

·      White Bird in SF starts harm reduction efforts

1965- Willis Harman, Stanford professor, later to become president of the Institute of Noetic Sciences, and Robert Mogar, Associate Professor of Psychology, San Francisco State College, gained the agreement of the Administration of SF State College to set up The Institute of Psychedelic Research. Harman wondered if psylocibin could focus the mind for scientific problem solving, not mysticism or psychotherapy. Unfortunately, the turmoil created by Timothy Leary in his open advocacy of psychedelics and his low regard for the encrustation he perceived in many institutions, generated enormous resistance in the academic world This caused SF State College to reverse their decision despite the fact that they had already printed a brochure describing the substantial potential that psychedelic drugs could offer, based upon a great deal of experience that had been gathered n the previous decade by knowledgeable investigators.  

1966 Oct 6. Public use and the sale of LSD, DMT, Peyote and mescaline were prohibited. All scientific research was halted on the same day- with over 60 promising trials in progress, totally disregarding the exceptional positive results, and despite evidence of the limited medical risks and therapeutic potential of psychedelics.

1970 LSD, DMT, MDA, psylocibin & cannabis became labeled as Schedule 1 drugs under the Controlled Substance Act (CSA). (The CSA was Enacted by Congress to regulate the manufacture, distribution and use of certain drugs and other substances that have the potential for abuse or addiction. Psychedelics were placed in this category.)

Penalties were established. They vary depending on the substance, quantity, and the defendant’s criminal history.

1971-86 The “War on Drugs” commences. Mandatory minimum sentencing enforced. Made drug use a criminal offense rather than a health issue. “Just Say No” and DARE Camps created fear and shame.

For nearly 2 decades, research was halted. Researchers were stigmatized if they wanted to study psychedelics, and there was no government funding available.

1986. MAPS (Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies). A Non-Profit 501c3 Public Benefit Corporation founded by attorney Rick Doblin, to end the prohibition against psychedelics both legally and culturally, fostering research, funding and resulting in persistent progress. It has had a huge influence and success in the FDA in 2019 declaring psychedelics as a breakthrough therapy. There is much to be said about this crucial organization that now sponsors conferences with 12,000 in attendance. For another time….

1986 After years of being used as an adjunct to therapy by a small group of therapists, MDMA is deemed a Schedule 1 drug after it gained popularity in night clubs. No controlled studies after this time for decades.

1986-93- As Aids & Crack epidemics rage on, psilocybin use shifts to the Rave scene & festivals like Burning Man.

1993 National Harm Reduction Coalition forms in an effort to support vulnerable populations.

1996 Marijuana legalized in Oregon and Colorado

1998 Franz Vollenweider, the Swiss neuroscientist, discovers that LSD and psilocybin achieve their effects by binding with the brain’s 5-HT2A receptor

1989-1998 Rupert Sheldrake/Terence McKenna – talked of self -transformation during DMT travels.

Rupert Sheldrake was a controversial biologist and author of more than 85 scientific papers and 9 books, and co-author of 6 books.

Terence McKenna developed a taxonomy to analyze non- human intelligences. Was at Esalen Institute. McKenna said that “not until our primate ancestors began eating psychedelic plants did they begin to acquire human qualities. McKenna wrote “True Hallucinations”. He had fascinating ideas, a sense of humor & self- parody. As a youth he read Carl Jung’s Psychology and Alchemy.  In 1972 he received a self-tailored degree in ecology, resource recovery and shamanism. He was an American ethnobotanist and mystic. 1946-2000 (died age 53) Said psychedelics were man’s salvation. Timothy Leary christened him the “Timothy Leary of the 90’s”.

There were 3 authors to The Evolutionary Mind: Trialogues at the Edge of the Unthinkable- Ralph Abraham, Rupert Sheldrake and Terence McKenna. Their passion was to break out of paradigms that retard our evolution, and to explore new possibilities. They ventured where few have gone before, leading readers on an exciting journey of discovery.

Ralph Abraham, PhD, chaos mathematician. The discussions in the Evolutionary Mind Trialogue focused on the evolution of the mind, the role of psychedelics, skepticism, the psychic powers of animals, the structure of time, the life of the heavens, the nature of God, and transformations of consciousness. “Written with startling insights and more wonder than we knew we had”. (Matthew Fox)

In the past 10-15 years-several FDA approved clinical studies have indicated medical value for psilocybin assisted psychotherapy in the treatment of depression, anxiety and certain addictions- drug and alcohol & OCD, PTSD and quality of life/peace for cancer patients at the end of life. At present, assuming that the early clinical studies can be validated by larger studies, psylocibins are poised to make a very significant impact on treatments for otherwise ineffectual mental health.

This research included clinical trials with MDMA- assisted treatment for PTSD, alcohol abuse, social anxiety, depression and addiction as well as the ability of psychedelics to catalyze spiritual or mystical experiences and inspire creativity.

1999 Dr. Roland Griffiths set up a research project at John Hopkins Univ to study the effects of psilocybin

2006 Griffiths publishes his LANDMARK paper showing that psilocybin can induce highly meaningful mystical experiences

2006 Research showed LSD and psilocybin could decrease cluster headaches in both intensity and frequency

2009 Dr Robin Carhart-Harris carried out the 1st clinical study of psi in the UK. This was also the 1st clinical study in 40 years in the UK.

2011 Charles Grob publishes research showing that psi decreases anxiety in patients with advanced cancer.

Study shows that MDMA is a safe and effective treatment for PTSD

2014 Carhart-Harris showed in a study utilizing brain scans, that psi increases communication between areas of the brain that don’t normally communicate with each other.

2016 Carhart-Harris published brain scan images of how LSD affects the brain.

2018 Study illustrates that ayahuasca leads to significant decrease in depression

2019 The Imperial College of London launches the world’s 1st Center for Psilocybin Research.

Some months later John Hopkins launces its own Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research

Albert Marshall, indigenous leader, said we need “two eyed seeing”, referring to an integration of indigenous knowledge and sacred practices with the psychedelic plants used for healing and transformation, with the forthcoming medical approach.

2019 – FDA declares psychedelics as a BREAKTHROUGH THERAPY, based on the clinical trials from Compass Pathways and Usona Institute on psilocybin use for severe depression and major depressive disorders.

The designation is meant to expediate the development and review of drugs that are intended to treat a serious condition.

What was lacking in the 60’s-90’s was technology and hard scientific data. Today, we have MAPS submitting their Phase 3 Trial of MDMA !

Paul Stamets, 1955- current, prominent American mycologist, scientist, prolific researcher, advocate of medicinal fungi and myco-remediation, entrepreneur, started Fungi Perfecti with the goal of building the bridge between people and fungi. Since its inception in 1980, Fungi Perfecti has become synonymous with cutting-edge mycological research and solutions. His recent product- “Stamen’s Stacks” combines Lion’s Mane, niacin and psilocybin mushrooms to create a powerful healing tea with extraordinary anti-inflammatory effects, as stated by over 5000. Stage 1 studies begin in the near future.

2020 Nov 3. OR Ballot Measure 109 passes. “The Psilocybin Services Act”. (The Oregon Psilocybin Society, with founders Tom & Sheri Eckert, led the campaign to raise awareness about the safety and benefits of controlled psilocybin services.). It directs the OR Health Authority to regulate the manufacture, delivery, purchase and consumption of psilocybin mushrooms & psilocybin products to individuals 21 years of age and over. The Oregon Health Authority was given 2 years to establish the program and create regulations. 

A Psilocybin Advisory Board (OPAB) advises the OHA. The board has 14 members appointed by the governor.

Clients are allowed to purchase, possess and consume psilocybin at a certified psilocybin service center and under the supervision of a certified psilocybin service facilitator after undergoing a preparatory session.

OHA determines who is eligible to be licensed as a facilitator (training requires 160 hours), determines the qualifications, education, training and exams needed, and creates a “professional conduct” for facilitators. OHA sets psilocybin dosage standards and labeling and packaging rules.

Measure 109 allowed cities and counties to place referendums on local ballots to prohibit or allow psilocybin product manufacturers or psilocybin service centers in unincorporated areas with their jurisdictions.

 

2020 Nov. Measure 110  made personal/non- commercial possession of a controlled substance, including psilocybin, no more than a class E violation with maximum fine of $100  or, one might, in lieu of a fine,  completed a screening health assessment, as set forth in ORS 430.389 (Council to oversee and approve grants and funding to Behavioral Health Resource Networks & other entities to increase access to treatment and services), within 45 days of when the person receives the citation for the Class E violation. ) With completion of the assessment the court shall dismiss the citation.

The failure to pay a fine on a Class E violation is not a basis for further penalties or for a term of incarceration (2021 c.2)

2021 Feb 1. Oregon Senate Bill 755-C codified and amended Ballot Measure 110, which decriminalize most unlawful possession of a controlled substance (PCS) offenses from a felony or misdemeanor to the new Class E violation.

2023 39 states now have legal access to marijuana. Polling shows that when people know of someone it has benefited, their opinion changes. Education is needed.

There are currently 700+ ketamine clinics in the US. Over the next decade it is expected that there will be 6,000 Clinics. (There are 5-6 K hospice centers in the US). Legalization will help with dispelling demonization. Religious use is dramatically increasing, particularly with Ayahuasca.

2023 The 1st FDA approved group therapy Study is currently at the Veterans Administration in Portland, Oregon

2023 Nov. MAPS results of phase 2 and phase 3 study were delivered to the FDA. Phase 3 study on the use of psychedelics for major depression was published Oct 2023. Compass Pathways is starting Phase 3 study on treatment resistant depression. MAPS has an “agreement letter” from the FDA, so the FDA is legally bound to approve MDM if there is statistical significance, if there are no known safety problems, and if data has been gathered properly. However, it has been deemed that more studies are needed.

This is a “New Drug Application”. There is a 6- month review time, as it would be a new “breakthrough” therapy. However, the clock stops when the FDA is finished with their questions. Then MAPS needs to respond, MAPS founder Rick Doblin felt that by May-June 2024 there should be FDA approval.

However, FDA approval did not come. More studies are needed.

THE FUTURE

When FDA approval does come, the DEA will have 90 days to reschedule. It is not clear if the DEA would put it into Class 2 or 3, but they will have to reschedule it within 90 days, as Congress passed laws restricting them to 90 days- as in the past they’ve taken a notoriously long time to do it.

Now, that’s not enough. The states need to reschedule as well. 50% of the states usually reschedule with the FDA changes. Others may need to go through their Public Health Board. California needs a new law. That is in the works now- a decriminalizing law, with a bill that says when the FDA approves psychedelics as a breakthrough therapy- MDMA will also be automatically approved. 

“There have been many promising series of discussions with insurance companies” Rick Doblin says. Insurance coverage is crucial. It doesn’t help a person if they get the drug for free, but they can’t afford the therapy. The FDA and DEA control the drugs, but they have no jurisdiction over psychotherapy. And all of the scientific studies have been based on Psychotherapy assisted psychedelic therapy.

Doblin says “Peer support trainings and self-care training is needed so people can do this on their own”.

Doblin has not seen any pushback from the pharmaceutical industry. “The drug war” has been largely discredited, so not seeing pushback. The value of helping people with PRSD is extremely large”. The value to the family is estimated to be 70K over the 1st 3 years.

MAPS has a standardized treatment manual. It is in the Public Domain. It describes the therapeutic approach. With FDA approval, practitioners will need to be trained according to the protocol MAPS used in their Phase 3 trial. They want schools of psychiatry and psychotherapy as part of the core curriculum. But once the method is learned, there can be innovation- they won’t have to use MAPS “inner directed therapeutic method”. One can combine it with guided imagery.

Current medical therapies are only addressing symptoms. Psychedelics address the core roots, and with neuroplasticity.

New areas of research are mind-body, cognitive behavior conjoint therapy, IBS, fibromyalgia, cancer patients and their partners (study at Sanstone, Maryland)

2025. A lot of psychedelic studies will have gone through Phase 3 trials.

Rick Doblin of MAPS stated we need a dual strategy: medical safety and a legal framework.

He believes the issues with the FDA will be:

·      What therapies will be approved

·      How will we train 10,000 therapists

·      Combinations of different psychedelics, used in different ways

·      If/How group therapy can be as effective as individual therapy

With research continuing into psychedelic substances and prohibitions gradually being relaxed, we will continue to see historic moments with psychedelics occurring in our lifetime (hopefully!).